Stages of second language acquisition

(Photo retrieved from: https://penlighten.com/second-language-acquisition-theory)

Children learning English as a second language go through an identifiable developmental sequence. There are two main ways to acquire a second language—simultaneous acquisition (when a child learns two languages at the same time), and sequential acquisition (when the second language is learnt after the first) (Purcell, Lee & Biffin, 2019). This assignment will focus on sequential acquisition, i.e. supposing children have no prior exposure to English before they enter kindergarten. The focus group is children aged four to six. By four years of age, children have developed basic spoken language. Many children at this stage are already fluent in their home language, which provides a sound basis for learning English as a second language (Clarke, 2009). Research shows that the earlier children are exposed to English, the more quickly they will acquire the language (Tabors, 1997). Compared to babies and toddlers who are immersed in two-language environments, this group of children will face greater challenge when they are exposed to the English language for the first time in kindergarten.

In this situation, children’s progress in second language acquisition can be assessed in four stages: Stage 1 - New to English; Stage 2 - Becoming familiar with English; Stage 3 - Becoming confident as a user of English; and Stage 4 - Demonstrated competency as a user of English. During the four stages, children (1) learn new vocabulary; (2) recognise new non-verbal language, gestures and facial expressions; (3) recognise differences in stress, rhythm and intonation; (4) differentiate the grammatical structure of the new language; and (5) adopt new ways of behaving and new values (Clarke, 2009).

After several months of exposure to English children will start using English and will communicate their needs and ideas in both verbal and non-verbal ways. They learn not only a new language but also new ways of behaving and operating in a new culture. Children will move to the next phase when they are ready and build on their achievement of the phase before (Clarke, 2009). It is vital for educators to understand the stages of second language acquisition, be aware of the time it takes to achieve fluency in oral language, and have appropriate expectations (Dixon et al., 2012). Children’s ability to communicate should not be measured by grammatical competence in the early stages. It is more important to assess learner’s ability to communicate with others and take part in interactions (Clarke, 2009).

(Photo retrieved from: https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-role-of-native-language-in-second-language-acquisition.html)

Stage 1 – New to English

In the first few weeks of exposure to English, children will:

·Begin to understand isolated key words and familiar words, particularly when language is supported by gestures, real objects and visual materials

·Carefully watch what other children are doing and collect information about the new language

·Imitate others and show comprehension with facial expressions and body movements (non-verbal responses)

·Initiate sound experimentation

·Make contact with other children, or make non-verbal requests from adults

·Continue to use their home language in the second language situation  (Clarke, 2009; Dixon et al., 2012)

Children’s willingness to learn a new language varies greatly (Clarke, 2009). Some children start speaking English immediately and show eagerness for developing friendships. Some are more reticent in starting to speak English. They observe others quietly and join in with non-verbal responses or single words. Some children will experience a prolonged “silence period”, during which they refuse to try and speak English and they only speak to those who have their same native language (Tabors, 1997). There are a number of factors that influence the rate of acquisition of English as a second language, including:

• the length of time exposed to English;
• the extent of the exposure to English; 

• the ways in which the child is exposed to English;
• the age of the child when they are first exposed to English;
• the similarities and differences between English and the home language;
• the acceptance and value given to English and the home language;
• individual characteristics within families – their strengths, needs and support; and
• individual characteristics of the child (including personality, confidence and learning styles) (Purcell et al., 2019)

The silent period can last for months. It is largely triggered by psychological and environmental factors rather than children’s cognitive and linguistic ability (Murphy & Evangelou, 2016). Children may keep silent due to the lack of security and trust in a new unfamiliar environment. Sometimes children have high expectations of themselves and do not want to make mistakes in the new language. Other children may be shy and find trying new things difficult (Clarke, 2009). Children should be assessed in their first language before assuming that they have language delay. Educators should interview parents to check children’s first language development. This will provide information on how well child can communicate in their first language and whether there is potential for language delay. Only when children are struggling with their first language should educators refer children to speech therapy or early intervention support (Clarke, 2009). Educators should spare no effort to include these children in group interactions and encourage other children to support them, making them feel they are part of the group.

Educators can adopt the following strategies to support children in a silent period: 

Children learning a second language can also be included in non-language activities (e.g. picture matching and water play). These activities allow children to demonstrate their competencies and participate without language. They also provide children opportunities to interact with peers and elicit peer support (Purcell et al., 2019).

Stage 2 – Becoming familiar with English

With increasing exposure to English, children’s understanding and willingness to speak English increases. They can now comprehend more than they are able to say and show growing confidence in using limited English. At this stage, children start to:

·Understand familiar English

·Understand and respond to greetings and routines

·Follow and give simple instructions 

·Exchange personal information

·Demonstrate willingness to join in and work alongside others

·Use isolated words to convey meaning

·Distinguish spoken English from other languages

·Still rely on non-verbal communication and memorised words or sentences  (Clarke, 2009; Dixon et al., 2012)

Stage 3 – Becoming a confident user of English

As children make progress in speaking English, they begin to develop productive use of the second language in a variety of contexts and show increased fluency. They also demonstrate better vocabulary, pronunciation and grammatical features. They become increasingly able to:

·Combine single words into short sentences

·Use comprehensible pronunciation, stress and intonation 

·Initiate as well as respond in interactions with early childhood educators and peers 

·Undertake some learning through English

·Concentrate when listening to English stories 

·Switch from the first language to English with different speakers (Clarke, 2009)

Stage 4 – Demonstrated competency as a speaker of English

At this stage, children show better comprehension and interest in using English in a range of situations. They can:

·Express ideas and take part in discussions with adults and peers with confidence

·Listen, talk and develop competence in extended speech

·Engage in a range of activities with books and reading 

·Gain greater control of the English tense system in certain contexts

·Engage in reflective thinking and cognitively challenging tasks

·Begin to explore complex ideas

·Begin to recognise written texts in English and write their own names in English

·Demonstrate leadership in group situations 

·Move with ease between English and their first language, depending on different situations

Early childhood professionals should be skillful in scaffolding children’s language development and provide opportunities for sustained shared thinking when children display a good command of spoken English. During shared thinking, educators and children work together in an intellectual way to solve problems, clarify concepts, evaluate activities, extend narratives, etc. (Clarke, 2009; Dixon et al., 2012).